Children's Bodies
But the smallpox vaccine existed independently from Tokugawa rule and its social foundations. It cared about children's bodies, not their status. Any child, whether samurai or outcaste, boy or girl, could become a link in the chain of transmission as long as the body had not yet been immunized. Vaccinations thus created impermanent networks between children that followed biological imperatives only and broke through such social constructs as territories, status identities, and family lines.
If physicians wanted to perpetuate the vaccine and rally sufficient numbers of children, they had to take advantage of the vaccine's undiscriminating nature. At the same time they also needed to work through the structures of Tokugawa society that regulated access to children's bodies. To exercise pressure on reluctant parents, vaccinators relied on domain administrators, the headmen of villages and town blocks, five-peoples' groups, and other officials and bodies of control. They also had to insist on strict compliance with the rules of their own professional networks because random transmission would have meant a lack of monitoring and quickly led to extinction of the vaccine.
As in other parts of the world where the treatment was being introduced, skepticism about smallpox vaccination was rampant in late Tokugawa Japan. Unlike previous variolation techniques of Chinese origin, the administration of the cowpox vaccine required cutting the body--contradicting the Confucian emphasis on leaving intact the body one had received from one's parents--and transmitting bodily fluids from child to child. To make matters worse, the vaccine had been derived from beasts in a foreign land by barbarians adhering to the evil creed of Christianity--a concern that was widespread, not just among uneducated people but even among some advocates of vaccination. Some physicians also opposed the new technique on grounds of Chinese medical theory or because the doubted its benefits. After all, the vaccine could be deadly if it triggered an actual outbreak of smallpox or resulted in the transmission of other illnesses. Furthermore, not all vaccinations were effective, leaving some patients vulnerable to disease [Soekawa, "Gyūtō shutōhō shōrei no hanga ni tsuite," 62-63; ibid., Nihon tōbyōshi josetsu, 76-78, Trambaiolo, "Writing, Authority, and Practice," 221-47, 252-52; Kōzai, "Yobō sesshu to iu 'eisei'," 223-24].
To explore the subject of vaccinations of outcastes, go directly to the page "Vaccinating Across Status Boundaries." Or stay on the pathway "The Networks and Vehicles of Transmission."